A technical dictionary of printmaking, André Béguin. EN

wood

outline of the article

  1. DEFINITION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
  2. THE MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES USED IN MAKING BLOCKS.

    1. BLOCKS
    2. TOOLS
    3. CUTTING AND ENGRAVING
    4. CHIAROSCURO AND COLOUR
    5. THE JAPANESE TECHNIQUE

  3. PRINTING PROCEDURES

    1. GREASY INK
    2. WATER BASE INKS
    3. CLEANING AND CONSERVATION OF BLOCKS

  4. LABOUR DIVISION IN MAKING BLOCKS
All printing techniques consists in separating the inked areas from the other ones on the printing element.
This is done in one way or another, depending on the technique which is used. The most ancient printing technique is the relief* printing method in which the relief areas are inked and then printed. The white areas are intaglio (sunken) as compared to the image itself. This technique is the wood block technique in which the block is cut out and the non-printing areas are removed. What is left is the image on the original level which is now in relief. Quite often other relief techniques are grouped with the woodcut technique since the same approach can be used on other materials such as plastic, linoleum, or even metal. However, even though the fundamental principle is the same for all materials (insofar as the work is concerned) the resulting characteristics are different and even the tools used may be quite different.
The reader who wishes to pursue these different relief techniques may turn to the article on relief* techniques and the various articles devoted to specific relief techniques.
One must make a clear distinction between woodcuts that are meant to be printed (examined here), woodcuts that are made for decorative purposes and woodcuts that are sculptures. Yet other types of woodcuts are used for printing on cloth, an extremely ancient technique that was already practiced in Classical antiquity. lt is quite likely that the famous Protat block found near Dijon (France) in 1898, which is certainly one of the most ancient blocks in existence (end of the 14th century), was a printing element used to decorate altar cloths which were coloured after being printed. None of the paintings of Cennino Cennini, the Italian painter and disciple of Giotto, have survived but his famous technical treatise on painting dated 1437 has come down to us. ln his ll libro dell'Arte o Trattato della Pittura Cennini mentions, among other things, the method used to print with wood blocks on cloth. The block was "inked" with a glove dipped in a mixture of vine black and a liquid varnish in such a way that "the sunken areas are not filled up". The printing itself was done by putting the block on a slretched cloth and rubbing it with a piece of wood [* frotton].
Although this article is devoted to woodcuts l would like to mention briefly the relief metal cut. This very ancient technique was used by goldsmiths to do niello* or enamel work on metal. The goldsmiths who made thesemetal cuts printed a proof to check their work by means of a sulphur counterproof whose intaglio areas were inked. One of these proofs was seen by Vasari (the artist-historian of the 15th century) who considered it to be a print and went on to create the legend whereby intaglio plate prints were bom from the niello work of Maso Finiguerra (1426-1464) [* line engraving ].
Relief metal cuts were sometimes used to print with and soon metal plates were used to replace the more fragile wooden blocks. The proofs pulled with these relief metal cuts are often hard to distinguish from work done on wood and, as a consequence, it has often been thought that metal cuts were actually made before woodcuts. This theory is, however, no longer accepted.
Actually, the birth of the woodcut came about at the same time as the invention of paper. As of the 15th century the two main currents of print making were the reproduction of religious imagery and the reproduction of playing cards. The woodcut has also the distinction of having been the ancestor of book printing since in both Japan and in China such printing began as early as the 9th century. ln Europe the first xylographic books, called xylographic íncunabula, featured both images and text so that they could be used by both the "lay and the religious" as the preface of one of the first such books puts it (Ars moriendi). The very first of such books had only printed images and the text was manuscript but soon enough both were printed. Somewhat later on, when mobile characters were invented and typography* began (around 1450), the image was separated from the text but was done on blocks that were as high as the mobile characters so that they could be printed on the same press.
lt must not be thought that these various printing techniques followed each other in a linear fashion because, in actual fact, all of these various techniques evolved during the eventful 15th century, sometimes for technical reasons, sometimes due to taste, sometimes for reasons of increased speed and sometimes even due to "patents" and legal problems. lt must be said that it is prudent not to consider the mobile character as a direct descendant of the single block printing system but rather as a transformation using metal to do what was very difficult to achieve with wood. This would seem to be the case despite a 16th century text entitled Batavia with would have it that in 1420, near Haarlem in the Netherlands, a certain Coster "cut oak bark in the shape of letters" with which he did the first typographic printing to instruct his children. This text has come under serious criticism and it is generally thought that typography began with the making of movable metal characters. lt seems that movable metal characters were invented by Gutenberg around the middle of the 15th century.
The most ancient woodcuts in existence are a Saint Cristopher of 1423 which is kept at the Ryland Library of Manchester and a Saint Sebastian dated 1437 which is at the Albertiana Museum of Vienna.
Both of these woodcuts show to what extent the style of a technique is linked to the materials that allow it to exist. In fact, the lines in woodcuts (before the 18th century revolution brought about by wood engraving) must be quite thick because the relief areas have to bear the pressure ol printing.
This technical fact gives the woodcut its rather particular "solidity" which is such that the image can risk becoming heavy and angular. The woodcut technique was a perfect technique for reproducing the drawings made in the Middle Ages as these drawings were rather concise, somewhat formal, and well delimited. lt is quite typical that the Renaissance, on the other hand, assimilated line engraving more easily even though the woodcutting technique was not entirely abandoned, as Dürer shows us all too well. ln the Renaissance the woodcut slowly developed in the direction of chiaroscuro. lt might be said that the woodcut is characterised by a relatively brutal opposition between black and white, the tai-chi of engraving, the contrast and coincidence of the male and female principles underlying the universal creation [* white 1]. A woodcut has no mercy for poor graphic sensibility. One must work with precision.
The genius of woodcut takes well to the kind of assurance that was shown by such 15th century masters as Holbein, Dürer, and Hans Baldung Grien. Later on, and little by little, the woodcut became increasingly perfected until it became an artist's medium while the popular print maintained, up until the 19th century, its traditional rustic character.
ln 1560 Ugo de Carpi asked for a kind of patent for his "chiaro e scuro" woodcut technique. He was not the inventor of this technique since the chiaroscuro technique or camaieu technique had been practiced by Cranach and by Baldung Grien at least five years earlier. However, Carpi certainly translormed the technique. If the chiaroscuro print is characterised by the fact that it uses several tones of the same colour and several blocks, before Carpi only two blocks were used, he introduced the use of four or five blocks. When using only two blocks, one was the line block while the other was a tone block.
The use of more blocks allowed (and still allows) for a refining of the image and for dilferentiating the nuances more strongly. One block can be used, for example, for printing the more accentuated lines, another may be used for printing the shadows, a third block may add the hall tones, a fourth may print the highlights, etc. Ugo da Carpi was nothing more than an average painter but his chiaroscuro prints reproducing Parmigiano's and Raphael's work are vigorous and representative prints which show what the superimposition* or the juxtaposition* of colours can do when using several blocks at a time. [* chiaroscuro ].
From the 16th century to the 19th century the woodcut was displaced by line engraving. Only in the 19th century was it used again due to a real renaissance of this technique. However, it must be pointed out that the works of Titian and Campagnola were beautifully reproduced with woodcuts. Furthermore, the drawings of Rubens were cut by Christoffel Segher under the supervision of the master and produced very fine woodcuts.
ln 1775, one year before the death of .lean-Michel Papillon (a third generation woodcutter) Thomas Bewick revealed his wood engraving technique. lt took this Englishman, who was an engraver of animals, to bring wood engraving to the fore and have it be accepted as its invention some 15 years earlier by a Lyon paper maker (Foy) had not aroused much interest. lt must be pointed out, however, that wood engraving had also been practiced in the 16th century in Antwerp (some say that it was practiced yet earlier in the 5th century). lt was not until the 19th century that engravers realized the importance of this technique and used it massively.
Up until the time of Bewick the woodcut was done on a plank (a piece of wood cut lengthwise along the grain). The innovation of wood engraving came about when end grain wood blocks began to be used. To make such wood blocks the trunk of a tree is cut horizontally and left to dry for several years. Only the best pieces are used, cut in little cubes that are glued together so as to make perfectly homogenous blocks. Then the block is pounced until it is perfectly smooth. Such blocks can be engraved upon without having to respect the precautions that weigh upon woodcutting and limit the latter one of these techniques. ln fact, in wood engraving there is no danger of breaking the wood fiber. An end grain block can be worked with a graver, just like a metal plate, and in all directions.
The 19th century saw the height of wood engraving. The great advantage of this technique is that it can be used to print images along with a text, which is not the case in line engravings since the roller press used to print such plates is completely different from the typographical press. As such, wood engraving had no competition until relief photo-engraving was developed around 1885 [* reproduction ]. The book printed at the beginning of the 19th century (the Romantic period) were, in France, characterised by the birth of a massive book industry and by the birth of illustrated periodicals such as the Magasin Pittoresque, L'Illustration, and the Musée des Families. Artists began to be required by the publishers and took to drawing directly onto the blocks which were then worked by very talented artisans. The work was highly organized due to the increasing number of illustrations that were required and thus there were specialists for the sky, for the image outline, and for the shadows. This type of wood engraving served some of the greatest artists of the time: Gustave Doré, Johannot, Daubigny, Gigoux, Monnier, Gavarni, Daumier, and Meissonier. When the block was meant to reproduce a half tone image done with a brush it was called a tone block but, due to the inherent differences of the two techniques, the block could only be an interpretation of the half tones. Wood engraving was also used (much used) for white line work which, although not yet called by this name, had been practiced in one way or another ever since the 15th century. White line work is the opposite of normal wood engraving in that the drawing (or image) is white* on a black background. lt should be quite obvious that wood engraving lent itself particularly well to white line work since the highlights of the image can be obtained by thickening lines or then by hatching. The most brilliant highlights are brought about by the largest intaglio areas.
ln Germany wood engraving was practiced in Berlin around 1810 but it did not undergo a real renaissance until 1840. ln France wood engraving was used for reproductive work and book illustration whereas in Germany it continued to be used for original prints. One of the most important wood engravers of the time, Adolf Menzel, influenced a great number of artists.
Photochemical engraving hit the wood engraving technique shortly thereafter and dealt it a fatal blow.
At the same time, however, wood engraving was taken over by original print makers so that its death as an industrial technique was compensated by its rebirth as an artist's medium. In fact, wood engraving was used by Valloton, Gauguin (who found in wood engraving the solution to his synthetic approach), and the expressionist Munch who turned wood engraving into a kind of calming effect for his disquieting world. Shortly thereafter wood engraving began to be used by the German expressionists who were influenced by Japanese colour prints (as were some French print makers). The technique of these painter engravers was voluntarily brutal , in harmony with the ideas exposed by the German group Die Brücke (Nolde, Kirchner, Heckel, and yet others). Some of these engravings were done on soft wood used for making crates. However, it was not only Die Brücke artists who were attracted to wood since Franz Marc also used it as well as Max Beckmann and Kandinsky.
In the 20th century original engraving has maintained its position and wood cutting is particularly well adapted to contemporary expression. ln 1953 the International Association of Wood Engravers and Cutters was founded in Zürich.

II. MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES USED IN MAKING BLOCKS

1 . BLOCKS .

The block is the support for prints using wood. lt is inked and printed to make a print. Traditionally it is 2,3 cm high (i.e. the same height as printing characters). However, this height is only necessary when the block is meant to be printed on a printing press and`when it accompanies a text. ln this case the height must, of course, be the same all over and the surface must be polished and perfectly plane.
The wood used for blocks must be hard and one must always choose healthy, dry pieces. The woods most often used are cherry, wallnut, apple, boxwood, service wood, wild cherry and linden. Box wood is considered to be the best wood for engraving since the hardness of this wood produces an effect not unlike that achieved by a metal plate. The wood used in Japanese wood prints are pear and cherry.
l have already pointed out the difference between wood cutting and wood engraving. lt is nevertheless important to remember that the work done in each case is different. The woodcut requires a fairly large and simple cut in which the lines are quite thick. The work is done with a knife and it is hard to do any delicate work since there is always the risk of breaking the wood fiber if the cut is not done in the direction of the fiber. Wood engraving, on the other hand, is worked in a completely different way. The wood block does not crack open when the engraving is done and no shavings are produced but rather some "sawdust". The slightest scratch will be visible when printed. The actual cutting or engraving is done with a graver (not a knife) and because of this a wood engraving can, at times, be confused with a metal plate engraving. Wood cutting ís, at present, much used, especially as it allows for that rigorous expression that seduces painters in particular. Wood engraving, on the other hand, is used above all for reproductive prints.

2. THE TOOLS.

For wood work the tools must be very sharp and must cut well. The tools used have different shapes so as to cut all types of lines and do any kind of work.
The knife* or woodcutter's knife is the tool most used in woodcutting. lt has either a short triangular blade or a blade in the shape of a beak which has been bevelled sideways. This blade is either fixed to a short wooden handle or else sunken into a copper or zinc sheath. ln the second case the blade can be moved forward as it wears down and eventually be replaced entirely. In any case the blade must stick out 2 cm from the sheath. Similar blades can be had from a shoemaker supplier. The cutting edge of the blade is prepared with a file and finished off with a whetstone [* sharpening ]. The knife is used above all for cutting and cutting back the plank but it can also be used in wood engraving.
Gouges* have a rouded blade that allows one to cut a "trough" shaped section out of the wood.
Various sizes of gouges are available. The biggest ones must be hammered with a mallet. Some gouges cut a V shaped form into the block.
Chisels are blades with a flat cutting edge mounted on a handle. Chisels allow one to cut away large sections of the block. Usually chisels are hammered with a mallet. The firming* chisel is used above all for cutting* away (see below) and for cleaning out corners. The scraper* is used for cleaning out the intaglio areas.
The mallet used in woodcut work is a wooden hammer that is quite light. lt is used to hit the cutting tools and to work the large areas that have to be cut out.
The gravers* (burins) used in wood engraving resemble, at least in shape, those used in metal plate engraving. However, the section of the blade is less wide, especially with the losange graver. These gravers are very sharp and are used to cut extremely fine lines, to make little holes, and to cut outlines (see further on). Gravers are also used to clean out the trough of the lines and to cut them in such a way that an angle is formed rather than a flat bottom. As a rule gravers are only used on end grain blocks (wood engraving) since on a plank (i.e. in woodcut work) they might tear out the wood grain.
Other types of gravers, such as the scoper (or scauper), have a rectangular section that may vary in width. The end is bevelled in the direction of the smaller side of the rectangle. Such a graver gives a wider cut than a normal graver. The flat graver which is sharpened like a small chisel is used for cutting away areas around an image. The onglette graver cuts a rounded line (a bit like a gouge) and is used for cutting curved lines. The tint tool cuts several parallel lines at a time due to its particular profile. lt is used for hatching* and for shading*. lt has also been used to quickly cut the sky in facsimile prints.
One can also use mechanical implements to cut out large areas of a block and to clean out the intaglio areas. A drill attached to a flexible arm is often used for this purpose.
The pad* used at present is made of leather and filled with sand or felt. The block is put on the pad so that it can be rotated in all directions and be worked in any direction one wishes to. Usually pads are only used when working on end grain blocks (wood engraving) and are used in the same way as the pads in metal plate engraving. ln woodcut work the block is fixed to the table so that it will not slip about while it is being worked on. Very small blocks are held in place in a kind of frame with adjustable screws.
The frotton is made up of a round and slightly convex piece of rvood (6 to 8 cm in diameter) which is stuffed with hair mixed with a strong glue. The whole is covered with a well stretched piece of parchmeny, leather, or cloth, the ends of which are gathered together and pulled tight with a string. A central piece of wood is used as a handle. This tool is used to rub the back of a sheet of paper which lies on an inked block when a printing is done. At times the frotton is replaced by a paper knife, i.e. a straight and rounded off blade made of wood, ivory, bone or plastic (sometimes even metal) which is usually used to cut sheets of paper. Another instrument used for hand printing is the burnisher* generally used by intaglio engravers. The baren* is the oriental version of a frotton. lt was used in Japanese woodcutting which, at least traditionally, never used a printing press. Barens are made with round sections 13 cm in diameter which are held together by hernp string and covered with bamboo leaves. The fine parallel ridges slide over the sheet of paper and yet allow one to exert the right amount of pressure. The bamboo leaves are twisted around on both ends where they come together again and thus form a handle.
The inking roller* used to apply ink on the printing surface is made of leather, gelatine, or rubber and has either a centrally placed handle or then a handle on either side, depending on how heavy the roller is. Rollers with two handles anda larger diameter and are used for inking large blocks. These rollers replaced the more ancient dabbers* or balls* that were rubbed against each other so as to equalize the amount of ink they each carried. The dabbers and balls were used to "dab" or tap the ink onto the block but they had to be used carefully in order that the ink did not enter the intaglio areas. Dabbers are still used at times. They are slightly bulging, stuffed with horse hair, and are covered with leather or a piece of cloth. They have a central handle that gives them the shape of a mushroom. They must be rather hard so that the ink they deposit will not enter the intaglio areas of the block.
A rounded off file is used to scrape the bottom of the trough areas cut into a block.
The printing press. For good quality proofs printed with an oily ink the manual and frotton printing systems are not adequate. lt is necessary to use a wood block press. Typographical presses are used if wood blocks are to be printed at the same time as a text. One can also use a roller press ( intaglioplate press) by modifying it somewhat. ln fact, all that has to be done is to lift the upper roller or cylinder on both sides by using two bars of wood that are the same height as the block to be printed. ln this way printing can be done in very good conditions even though a specific wood block press is best for the purpose.
The very first type of wood block press was the screw press (not unlike a grape pressing mechanisrn) that was developed with the invention of printing. Around 1900, when the wood block was once again used by various artists, much of the printing was done by hand with a paper knife or a frotton. Japanese woodcuts are not printed on a press since the water base inks used in this technique and the non-coated paper do not require much pressure to produce an excellent quality proof.
The original printing presses were made with wood. lt was only towards the end of the 18th century that they began to be made of iron. This switch of materials considerably improved the precision and the strength of woodcut proofs. The most ancient screw system was perfected in the course of the centuries but two other systems were also developed: the knee operated press and the cylinder press ( the latter is not to be confused with the roller press used in printing intaglio plates).
Older presses such as the screw press and the knee press are made of three essential parts: the platen, the bed, and the tympan. The platen is a very heavy metal plate which, when put down on the paper, exerted the right amount of pressure for printing. The platen was worked either by a screw tightening mechanism or then by a mechanism that looked a little like a leg artículated at the knee (which gave the name to this press). This second type of mechanism was called a new platen and had a reputatíon for distributíng the printing pressure in a very equal way. A hand-operated bar was used in both cases to increase or release the pressure. The bed or marble is the lower part of the press on which the blocks were placed to be printed. The bed was made so that it could be moved frorn under the platen when a new block had to be placed on it. This facilitated the inking procedures and the removal of the sheets of paper that had already been printed. The tympan, on the other hand, is a mobile frame with a piece of cloth or a piece of paper stretched over it on which the blank sheet of paper is placed.
This frame has to be placed vertically in order to fix the sheet of paper on it. lt is then flipped over onto the block when the printing is to take place. At this point the tympan will be above the bed and below the platen. These three elements of the printing press stand on cast iron legs.
Cylinder presses also produce a very even proof. The block is placed on a table which features a metal cylinder that can move forward over its surface. The cylinder is either moved by a manual crank or electrically. This type of cylinder press is different from the roller press which is used for printing intaglio plates. The roller press also uses cylinders and, as has been painted out above, it can be used for printing blocks on condition that the upper cylinder is raised so as to be just slightly lower than the block to be printed. lf a roller press is to be used, a few sheets of paper or cardboard can be placed in such a way as to adjust the printing pressure. Some roller presses sold at present have an adapting system so that they can also be used for printing blocks [* printing presses].

3. CUTTING AND ENGRAVING.

A. DRAWING ON THE BLOCK. ln most cases a block is worked on once the image to be cut or engraved has been drawn upon it. This drawing can either be done directly on the block or else transferred from a tracing done on another support. ln any case, it is always best that an artist do his own transfer onto the block if he does not intend to work the block itself because a transfer, no matter how well it is done, cen deform the original. Furthermore, if the transfer is done by the artist himself he can always adapt his work to the size and characteristics of the wood [* transfer].
The drawing must always be done as clearly as possible using India ink* so as to make sure that it will not be rubbed away while preparing the block. ln fact, while the block is being worked the drawing it bears will be continually rubbed by the hands of the cutter or engraver. lt must be said, however, that some artists prefer to work their block without having a preliminary drawing on it. ln any case, when a woodcutter or engraver follows the preliminary drawing on the block he must also refer back to the original drawing (in search of half tones, for example). The original drawing must be hung behind him so as to be reflected in a mirror in front of him. This is necessary because the block must be worked in reverse so that the proof printed from it will come out looking like the original drawing.
Preliminary drawings on a block can only be done if the block has been polished, squared, and is ready.
Generally speaking, one must always make sure that the intaglio areas will be sufficiently deep (both in woodcut work and in engraving) so that when the inking is done they will not be dirtied. The bigger intaglio areas are those most easily sullied due to the relative suppleness of the inking roller. These rather big intaglio areas must be at least 4 mm deep (0.16 in) in order to avoid this problem.

B. CUTTING A BLOCK. Woodcuttingis done with a woodcutter's knife, an instrument that is held like a pen in one's right hand and is held in place or guided by the middle finger and the index finger of the left hand. The knife is used to cut along the outline of the image to isolate the image relief area. The drawing is first followed along the outside (the cutting procedure) holding the knife slanted so that the relief will have a slope which slants away from the top. This slope is essential as it ensures that the relief will be strong and will resist the printing pressure. The first cutting is done along the line of the drawing and leaves only a slight "crack" in the wood that one knows is on a slope only because the knife itself was on a slope. The cutting away (or second cut) is done parallel to the first one, but this time the slope is in the opposite direction (towards the line) so that the bottom reaches the first line cut. This "cutting away" procedure (as the term indicates) removes a piece of wood so that the outline of the image is isolated. If the knife cuts to the bottom of the first line a triangular piece of wood will be removed, leaving a V shaped cut in the block. The cutting and cutting away done on either side of the line will eventually isolate the image in relief along its lines. This relief will eventually be inked and used to print. As a consequence the lines must be relatively wide (about 1 mm : 0.039 in). One must avoid lines that end in a sharp angle since they might easily be crushed by the printing pressure. lt should, therefore, be obvious that the drawing or image on the block must be neither too crowded nor too thinly drawn if one wishes to keep to the characteristics of a woodcut.
Furthermore, a woodcutter must be careful to watch the direction of the grain so as not to risk lifting out an unwanted piece of wood or break the grain of the block. Some woodcutters actually use the visible grain of the wood as part of their image.
When the lines of the image have been isolated, all that is left to do is to out out all of the areas that are not meant to print. This cutting out is done with chisels, gouges, drills, etc.
The tools used in woodcutting must always be perfectly sharpened. With the exception of the woodcutter's knife, all of these tools must be used in the direction of the grain. The block or plank is usually fixed to the table on which the work is being done [* studio]. When a chisel is used with a mallet it must be handled carefully so as not to damage the areas that are destined to be in relief. To avoid accidents the chisel should be held on a steep slope and the relief lines may even be protected from a slip out.

C. WOOD ENGRAVING. The end grain block used in wood engraving can be worked in a much more elaborate way than the plank used in woodcutting. The drawing or image in wood engraving can be full of finesse and it is not a good very wide lines. lt is possible to draw hatchings, crossed lines, sinous lines, full ones, dotted patterns etc. lt is no longer a problem to work the wood block since the grain does not have to be followed.
On the other hand, the engraver must take into account that the slightest scratch on the block will be visible once it is printed.
lf the block is not excessively big it may be placed on a pad - as in line engraving done on metal plates - so that the block can be turned around and presented to,1the tool rather than moving the tool rather than moving the tool to engrave the block.
The most often used tool in wood engraving is the graver which is held in such a way that the handle fits in the hollow of the engraver's hand, resting firmly in his palm. The truncated side of the mushroom handle should be almost on the block surface so that the blade of the graver is at a very sharp angle to the block. The thumb should be stretched along the blade and resting on the wood so that it can be used as a kind of brake. The other fingers of the hand should be folded around the mushroom handle except the middle finger and the index finger that are kept straight along the graver blade and allow the engraver to direct the tool the way he wishes. The direction is given in accordance with the thumb and the other muscles of the hand, arm, and shoulder. The work done with a graver should be quite smooth even though it must be done with a certain amount of strength. A minimum effort should be entailed by the process. The graver itself should be sharpened very carefully for best results [* sharpening ].
The echoppes used are held like a graver. They are also moved along in such a way as to form a very sharp angle with the block. However, they must be moved along the block in a slightly undulating movement which forces them to rotate somewhat on their axis. Either the base of the index finger or the thumb is used to pivot the tool. These echoppes are used to cut lines with a flat bottom as wide as the tool or to cut a trough shaped line (onglette), to clean, etc.
The tint tool is used to obtain gray printing areas but another way of producing half tones is to cross lines vertically, diagonally or one above the other. The crossing of lines can be done with a tint tool but it is usually done with a graver.
The onglette graver (which has already been mentioned) can also be used for cutting very supple lines such as white lines on a black background or then a silhouette.
When big gravers are used, a piece of cardboard or a piece of wood should be placed below it and held in place by the left hand so as to avoid rubbing the graver on the part of the block that has already been worked. The cleaning out of large intaglio areas may be done with a drill.
Some print makers use the same instruments and the same techniques in both woodcutting and in wood engraving i.e. woodcutter's knives and practicing'the cutting and cutting away on an end grain block.
By such means they obtain a more solid result and finer detail but it must be pointed out that half tones can only be achieved with gravers and echoppes.
As l pointed out in the first section on the historical background of these techniques, half tones were done essentially in reproductive work in which the artisan tried to render a painterly manner despite the material he was working on. Guite obviously, half tone work was done on end grain blocks and produced results that are not unlike those obtained in metal plate engraving even though they are less accentuated. In fact, in wood engraving (as opposed to metal engraving) the blacks are not as uniform and the whites show up as a slight relief (while in metal work it is the black that is in relief).

4. CHIAROSCURO AND COLOUR. As has already been pointed out, chiaroscuro* prints can be made using two, three, four or five blocks. When only two blocks are used one of them is the line block while the other is the so-called tone block. Since the tone block prints one colour and white at the same time three tones are obtained in two printings. When three blocks are used it is not necessary to keep one for the line work since the line work may be brought about by iuxtaposing or superimposing various tones.
The same principle of using several blocks at a time is used for colour work but, in this case, the blocks are not used to print several tones of the same colour. Each block is used to print another colour and, by superimposition, to create yet other colours.
Generally speaking, and excepting a case that l will examine further on, there must be an individual block for each colour to be printed. ln colour work, as in chiaroscuro work, one block can be used as a line block and another for one colour which, with the white of the paper itself, will produce a three colour print. A multiple block system can be used to juxtapose various colours or superimpose colours so as to create yet others. In the latter case, however, it should be pointed out that the wood blocks are not the ideal technique for superirnposing colours. ln fact, since wood blocks are used to print solid colours the inking of the blocks must be quite heavy and each printing will inevitably be quite opaque.
This means that the superimpositions will result in tonal changes rather than in new colours (as in aquatint printing). If a blue is superimposed on a yellow, the result will be green, but when two blocks are used the result will be a blue green solid colour surface since the ink's transparence is insufficient [* colour].
Actually it is not a good idea to try to bring about transparencies with wood blocks because the peculiarityof the block, its straightforwardness and its massiveness, do not take well to such subtelties.
lf one wishes to put some line work around a colour image this line block must be the first one of the blocks to be made. The line block (once it is made) is then used to print the same amount of proofs as the number of colours one wishes to have in the finished print. Then take these proofs (before they dry) and "print" them onto blocks that have been set aside for the various colours. These counterproofs* constitute an exact reproduction of the image that must be worked with. At this point one must cut out all the areas that are not meant to print on each tone block and leave those that will bear the colour.
A very ancient technique consists in cutting out each of the pieces of the block that will print another colour. These pieces are then reassembled in a frame. This method allows one to print various juxtaposed colours in one go.
One should also point out that in the past line work was sometimes printed with an intaglio metal plate while the colours were printed with the right amount of blocks. However, this technique presented the drawback that such prints had to be printed on two different types of presses.
lt is, however, possible to print several colours using only one block by adding details after each printing. A first printing can be done in which the total amount of proofs are printed (since there is no going back) with all the reds, for example. Then the block is reworked in function of the next colour to be printed on the proofs. This is repeated until the print is complete. This technique can be useful when a poster has to be done quickly but the text has to be printed from an intaglio plate, after which the various colours of the image can be added one by one.

5. THE JAPANESE TECHNIQUE.

ln this technique both the preparation of the block and the drawing done on it are different from the Western technique. The wood used (cherry or peach) has to be better polished than the blocks used in the preceding techniques. As a rule the block is just planed with a planer since Japanese printing is done with water base colours which tend to make the wood damp. lf the wood is worked with an abrasive* substance the fiber of the wood might be broken which would cause a series of problems when the printing is done (tearing* in particular). The drawing on the block is done with a paint brush on a sheet of paper which is then turned around and put face down on the block so that it will be right side up again when the block is printed. The sheet of paper is glued onto the block using a brush to make it stick. The Japanese use rice flowers to make the glue for this step. When this has been done the image will appear in transparence through the paper on the block. The rest of the work done on the block is much the same as that done in Western woodcutting.
For Japanese colour work it is customary to cut a registering mark at the top and the bottom of each block so that the paper can be registered when it is printed. These registering marks are then transferred onto the other blocks my means of a counterproof printed with lndia ink.

IV. PRINTING WOODCUTS AND WOOD ENGRAVINGS

1. PRINTING WITH OILY INK.

Oil ink was invented more or less at the same time as typography (i.e. during the 15th century). Before this invention a thin ink was used which was made either with lamp black and cooked starch or with vine charcoal crushed into a fine powder and diluted with a liquid varnish. There inks produced respectively gray brown and blackish proofs. Printing was done by hand using a frotton or other rubbing instruments. Then, when the printing press was invented, the printers developed an oil base ink that allowed for blacker proofs. Oil base inks are shiny and spread particularly well on wood. At present this type of ink can be bought ready made [* ink].
Before the inking roller was invented all inking was done using dabbers. Two dabbers or balls were used to pick up some ink and were then rubbed against each other so as to distribute the ink evenly.
Then the dabber was "dabbed" on the block, making sure that the intaglio areas did not get inked.
Dabbers can still be used today but it must be said that a roller allows one to apply a more uniform amount of ink on a block. The layer of ink deposited on the block must be very thin. Furthermore, a proper inking must be done in such a way that the intaglio areas are kept clean (the middle part being the hardest to keep clean). The inking must also be restricted to the reliefs making sure that there is no ink accurnulation along the border areas. If this rule is not respected the proof will result in an unclear image. A proper inking can only be done with a roller that is not too soft (this is particularly true in the case of woodcuts).
Before inking one must put the ink on a thick slab of plate glass and work it with a spatula to make it as soft as possible. The ink must then be pushed back into a corner of the slab and piled up so as to leave the slab clear for the inking procedures. Then the right amount of ink can be placed in the free area and spread in all directions with the roller. The ink is ready to use if it makes a crackling noise when the roller is passed over it. An overly dry ink will tend to mottle whereas an excessively oily ink will be hard to distribute evenly and will run off the reliefs [* ink].
lf one has a big enough inking surface it is possible to prepare a first, rather thick, ink layer which can be picked up by the roller and spread thinner later on [* inking ].
The paper used for printing has to be prepared before use and should be slightly dampened so that it will catch the ink more easily. Usually a rather smooth paper is chosen so that the printing will be quite uniform. However, the paper must not be too smooth [* dampening, paper].
The registering of the margins must be calculated ahead of time. This can either be done on the tympan of the press or with a very simple frotton printing, placing the piece of paper in a pre-arranged place on the block. lt is also possible to simplify the registering procedures by using a frame which fits onto the block and settles the sheet of paper into just the right place.
For frotton printing (rubbing) one must rub the back of the sheet of paper, using a burnisher, if necessary, to exert sufficient pressure. The sheet of paper can then be gently lifted off the block.
lf the printing is done on a press the bed is moved under the platen after the tympan has been folded onto the block.
According to the results obtained, it will be necessary to make some changes in order to prepare the block for the definitive printing. This procedure is called the make* ready procedure and has to be carried out in order to ensure that all the areas of the block will print the same. At times some lines have to be reinforced or some solid colour areas have to be lightened. This is done by glueing some underlays* (pieces of paper) to the back of the block in the areas that print too lightly. The areas that print too dark, on the other hand, can be cut away on the back. The raising is done by glueing a cut-out piece of paper to the back of the block. At times the entire block has to be raised with underlays so that the block will be on the same level as the typographical characters. lt should be quite obvious that the make ready procedure is a delicate one and that it depends very much on the experience of the person doing it. The make ready procedure is often carried out by an expert rather than by the artist himself.
ln colour printing and chiaroscuro printing in which a line block is used, the last block to be printed is usually the line block. The order followed usually goes from the lightest colour to the darkest or the strongest such as blue (particularly Prussian blue). Some printers, however, prefer to begin with the blue block [* colour].
ln colour printing the printer must mark the exact place where the sheet of paper will be placed on the tympan. The sheet is then placed and fixed into place. The block, on the other hand, is fixed to the press bed and is not moved throughout the printing procedures since the inking is done directly on the press. lt is quite easy to register each successive block on a press as long as all the blocks used are of the same size and are fixed to the press bed in exactly the same place [* registering].

2. JAPANESE PRINTING WITH WATER COLOURS.

Japanese printing is traditionally done on a kind of desk with a top that is inclined in the opposite direction as compared to writing desks. Nearby, the printer has some rather wide brushes with short and supple brushes and a set of bowls containing water colours which are made with water, coloured powders and a bit of rice glue. ln one bowl he has some India ink.
Each proof is printed all the way through (i.e. all of the colours are applied one after the other before going on to the next proof) a procedure that is quite unlike the Western one in which one colour is printed on each proof, followed by the next colour, etc. Furthermore, in Japanese colour printing the line block is the first block to be printed and is sometimes printed a second time when all of the colours have been printed.
The inking is done by brushing the colour onto the block. The printer uses a different brush for each colour or tone he uses. The brush must pick up enough colouring matter and yet not let it drip off the bristles.
The paper being printed on is laid down so that the satin finish side faces up. Remember that Japanese paper is only slightly coated and this only on one side. Such paper has to be dampened ahead of time and left in piles for about 24 hours so that each sheet will be supple when it is printed on. However, the sheet of paper must not have any water on it when the printing begins.
The baren is held in the palm of the hand, is pressed down onto the back of the paper, and is rubbed in a zig-zag movement in all directions. The order in which the colours are printed is not left up to chance, especially since the superimpositions of light tonalities are extremely delicate and can be nuanced according to the preeminence of each hue. Japanese artists sometimes create reliefs and gauffered* work by dampening the paper more than usual and pushing it into the intaglio areas of the block with their finger tips. Metallic hues can also be achieved by dusting some gold powder onto a proof that has been printed with glue rather than with ink.

3. CLEANING AND CONSERVING WOOD BLOCKS.

After printing, a block must be thoroughly cleaned with either turpentine oil (when printing has been done with oil base inks) or with water (if water base ínks have been used). Blocks that have been printed with black ink will always keep a dark colour since the ink will have penetrated the wood. The cleaning is completed by putting some starch or whiting on the lines of the image so that the image stands out against a dark background.
Wood blocks should be kept in a dust-free place and away from dampness and heat. Brutal temperature changes are especially to be avoided. Well kept blocks can be used to print thousands of proofs and, ín some cases, even tens of thousands of proofs. Despite the fact that we now have only a small number of blocks from the past it is known that these blocks were used to print a great number of proofs. lnsofar as concerns the conservation of the proofs themselves please turn to conservation of prints.

III. LABOUR DIVISION IN WOOD BLOCK MAKING

The making of a woodcut or a wood engraving may be subdivided into three distinct phases: the drawing,the cutting (or engraving), and the printing. lt is not necessary that these three different steps be accomplished by the same person. In the past these steps were often carried out by three different people.
Since work on wood blocks constituted (especially during the second half of the 19th century) a reproduction industry, it was quite obvious that the publishers of the time tried to rationalize the work that had to be done. As a consequence the drawing was done by an artist, the cutting or engraving by a cutter or engraver, and the printing by a printer. Each one of these people had mastered their skill after a long apprenticeship. Thus each workshop had their drawing artists, their engravers, etc. much like the convents of the Middle Ages had their own engravers and colouring artists. " lt can be surmised that the labour division between drawers and engravers carne about very soon... This dissociation between the person who did the drawing (maler) and the one who worked the block (schreiner) is to be found in the texts as early as 1470." ( 1. Laran, L'Estampe, Paris, PUF, p. 9-10). in the second half of the 19th century labour division in this domain reached e quite extraordinary degree since several engravers would work on a same block, each practicing his own specialty. By such means a block could be engraved in one night and be printed the next morning. The artist Gigoux, quoted by Laran, testifies to the hard life led by the wood engravers in these workshops. Gigoux says: "ln order to sirnplify the badly paid work of these engravers l tried to simplify my drawings and spared them the shadows as much as possible."
However, lt must be said that the reaction of many artists was not much in favour of this practice of labour division. Very often they decried the results obtained. At the time of fac-simile work and tone block work this caused a prodigious technical development. As of the end of the 19th century, when reproductive wood engraving was brutally interrupted by the invention of photo-engraving, artists instinctively felt the need for a global creation in which the " three distinct phases" became merged in a continous job. This was done by Gauguin and the German expressionists who hand-printed their blocks which they purposely worked in a "summary" fashion. Still today this need to work the block from beginning to end is felt to be very important.
[* línoleum cut, plastic, relief].